The Use of Knowledge in Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Use of Knowledge in Society - Essay Example Since the process of decision making process is heavily influenced by the type of knowledge possessed and the type of organizations involved, the motivation for decision making i.e. the type and level of knowledge possessed by them, is of crucial significance. This essay on ‘Use of knowledge in Society’ aims to discuss, analyse, and assess the views put forward by the author, F. A. Hayek (1945) and ascertain the implications of the claims made in view of various micro-economic theories and concepts. Summary: The article by Hayek (1945) on the use of knowledge in society discusses the various merits and influence of price mechanisms on the decision making process and role of specific knowledge as a decision-making mechanism. He states that â€Å"The peculiar character of the problem of a rational economic order is determined precisely by the fact that the knowledge of the circumstances of which we must make use never exists in concentrated or integrated form but solely a s the dispersed bits of incomplete and frequently contradictory knowledge which all the separate individuals possess (p. 519)." He implies that that it is humanly impossible for a single individual to possess all the relevant information to arrive at a favourable decision. The quest of individuals with regard to addressing the economic problem is hence not about applying the available information or knowledge for optimum utilization of resources but rather on the manner in which the best possible resources can be acquired by means of the limited knowledge available at our disposal. Merits of the argument: Product specific or consumer specific knowledge is known to help firms / organizations in maximizing their profits and sustaining their competitive positioning in the industry. The application of market oriented specific knowledge by the organizations helps firms in warding off competition and in developing effective strategies. Critical information or knowledge regarding one's com petitors such as products, prices, or policies adopted by them etc., plays a key role in producing market/ consumer oriented ideas/ products thus helping organizations in effectively catering to their target consumer/ market segment (Glazer, 1991). Such market / consumer oriented strategies developed based specific knowledge provides organizations with a competitive advantage (Barney, 1991) and helps them in succeeding regardless of the presence of negative influences / obstacles in the external environment (Jaworski and Kohli, 1993; Narver and Slater, 1990). Hayek has stressed the relevance and significance of knowledge in the development of society stating that awareness and application of specific knowledge is likely to contribute towards the overall development of the society and it is hence vital for individuals and societies to acquire and apply such knowledge for generating and maximizing their profits. Since capital is by far the most critical input of production in an indus trial society, possession of appropriate knowledge is inevitable for enabling effective decision making in order

Arguing a postion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Arguing a postion - Essay Example Furthermore if it comes to a choice between regulated studies on a few animals and treatment for an incurable disease, most people reluctantly make the same choice (Morelle).On the other hand, and animal rights activists argue that animal testing and experimentation is ethically and morally wrong, because by experimenting carious medicines on animals, we are selfishly causing them pain for our own benefit. While the standpoint of the activists may be sympathetic, ultimately, in Western society as a whole accepts the sacrifice of animals in the name of science. Joan Ryan, an ex-home office minister quoted, â€Å"Animal research and testing has played a part in almost every medical breakthrough of the last century. It has saved hundreds of millions of lives worldwide†. (Ryan). In fact, animal testing may not be the only way to discover new methods of treatment and diagnosis. The tests performed provide convenience as most of the test animals resemble the Human biological system and the results observed in these systems are quite similar to the effects expected to be observed in Humans. Since Humans can’t be used for testing and experimental purposes. Moreover, as animals share similar biological features to humans; animal testing has made strides in veterinary medicine as well. On the other hand, there are many people who consider animal testing as cruelty being inflicted upon the animals, the issue of selfishness is also another reason that these experiments are considered wrong because of the fact that we hurt the animals just to gain benefit for our own self. Animal testing and experiments are also considered to violate animal rights; those who support this statement tend to believe that if testing on humans is considered wrong then the same should be considered for the animals (Shukla). All of these procedures and experiments are previously approved by the relevant

Martha J. Coston Essay Example for Free

Martha J. Coston Essay Martha Coston was born in Baltimore in the year of 1826. She was left with four children to take care of after the death of her husband. This happened when she was only 21. Even though her husband was now gone she was determined to make money so she could raise her precious children. She then came up with the idea to signal flare on her dead husband notebook. Although the plans didn’t work she was still determined to find a successful way to make signal flare work. After some attempts she finally discovered that she could use phyrotechnice to make it. The green, red, and white flares worked so well that the navy bought them from her for $20,000 they even awarded Martha the contract to make them with. After the run in with the money she had just received her flares served as the bass of a system of communication that helped save lives and win battles during the civil war. So even after the war, Martha continued to improve her invention that has helped continuesly through out wars and such. The flares she had created became so popular that they sold in very many places. Such as France, Italy, Denmark, the Netherlands and Haiti. The system of bright, long-lasting signal flares revolutionized naval communication and continues to be in use. Costons invention saved many lives. The effectiveness of Pyrotechnic Night Signals attracted the U.S. Navy and till now these devices are still used. Later on her son Benjamin got a bad fever and died at age 26. Marthas life was then full of tragedies, her infant son had died and her mother also died. Even after all these tragic moments, she got money for her flares and saved the lives of millions people.

Smoking; Who Does it Really Affect? Essay -- Health, informative, expos

Secondhand smoke is extremely hazardous. It can cause death and dangerous health defects. Therefore, smoking is not only bad for the smoker, but for people around him or her too. However, there are only few laws that restrict public smoking. More legislation on smoking restrictions is needed because secondhand smoke causes asthma attacks in children, heart disease in adults, and sudden infant death syndrome in babies. These health problems are a result of the harmful chemicals in cigarettes. According to the National Cancer Institute, Beryllium, Butadiene, Chromium, Nickel, and Polonium are just a few of the 69 deadly chemicals that can cause cancer. The Office of the Surgeon General has proven that when inhaled, the same cancer-causing chemicals that smokers breathe enter the non-smokers body through secondhand smoke. Secondhand smoke is the combination of the smoke given off by a burning tobacco product (side stream smoke) and the smoke exhaled by a smoker (mainstream smoke). Because side stream smoke is made at lower temperatures and under different conditions than mainstream smoke, it has larger amounts of many of the toxins found in cigarette smoke. [National Cancer Institute]. Secondhand smoke has over 50 chemicals that cause cancer, and a minimum of 250 can harm you [National Cancer Institute and Office of the Surgeon General]. â€Å"The National Toxicology program estimates that at least those 250 chemicals in secondhand smoke are known to be toxic or carcinogenic† [Office of the Surgeon General]. The National Institutes of Health shows that environmental smoke is hurtful enough that it is considered a â€Å"Group A† carcinogen. â€Å"Group A carcinogens are the most toxic substances known to cause cancer in humans† [National Institut... ...g to worry about inhaling someone else’s smoke. Therefore, the government needs to take secondhand smoke seriously, and take precautions to help innocent bystanders from being subject to secondhand smoke. Works Cited American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts & Figures 2010. Atlanta, GA: 2010. Print. American Heart Association. â€Å"Environmental (Secondhand) Tobacco Smoke.† n.p. 29 Nov. 2010. Web. 8 May 2011. National Cancer Institute. Health Effects of Exposure to Environmental Tobacco Smoke. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute, 1999. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph 10. National Institutes of Health. â€Å"Other People’s Smoke.† n.p. n.d. Web. 8 May 2011 Office of the Surgeon General, â€Å"The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke: A Report of the Surgeon General.† U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. 4 Jan. 2007. Web. 8 May 2011.

Islam :: essays research papers

The five pillars The Five Pillars of Islam are the structure of Muslim religion. They are the testimony of faith, prayer, giving, fasting during the month of Ramadan, and if you are lucky the pilgrimage to Makkah once in a lifetime. The first pillar, entitled the testament of faith, exploits the Belief in one God, Allah, whom constitutes the very foundation of Islam. Prayer is the next pillar of Islam. Prayers do not take more than five minutes and are required five times daily. In prayer, a person feels inner happiness, peace, and a direct connection between the worshipper and Allah. Giving Zakat, other known as supporting the needy, is the third pillar of Islam. Initially, Zakat was the issue that altered Muhammad’s views of the world and turned him into a political figure. Fasting for the month of Ramadan is the fourth pillar of Islam. Even the Quran states, "O you who believe fasting is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you so that you can learn Taqwa" (Quran 2:183). Ramadan consists of fasting from dawn until sundown while concurrently abstaining from food, drink, and sexual contact. Finally, the pilgrimage to Mecca is the last pillar. Although these conditions seem intense, there are actually many benefits to these submitters. The temptations of the world seem to erase our understanding for religion and g-d. Fasting will remind you of what has been handed down to us. Ramadan can draw one closer to g-d by seclusion from the surrounding world. Ramadan will help achieve a willingness to give to the needy. Now you have been in their shoes and understand how it feels. Understanding discipline is important, since g-d has given us a free will, and the torture of Ramadan is a great reminder of how to view life. In the Quran one can find references to ritual prayer or salat. Holy Qur'an 2:149 "From whencesoever thou startest forth turn thy face in the direction of the Sacred Mosque; that is indeed the truth from thy Lord.

Compare and Contrast Classical Greece and Han China Essay

From 600 BCE to 600 CE, known as the classical period, Greece and Han China began to develop. These empires were extremely important and successful. However, despite their success, Classical Greece and Han China had major similarities and differences in their political, technological and economic/environmental views. These societies were similar in the fact that they emphasized certain buildings being built, such as urban centers, or universities. Both built systems to make certain aspects of life easier as well. The Greeks built aqueducts and the Chinese built a system of roads within their society. They were both also similar in the fact that both civilizations experienced population growth during the classical period, which led to expansion. Although they had multiple similarities, these societies had their differences as well. Politically, Greece was not unified they were divided into separate city-states, where as China was unified. Technologically, The Greeks focused more on building up their army and staying strong, while the Chinese worked on products that could improve their everyday lives, and had less to do with the protection of their civilization. Also, they differed economically/environmentally. Greece’s main items of trading were grapes and wine, China’s main export was silk. Although they had many similarities, Classical Greece and China’s differences outweighed these similarities. Politically, these societies had major differences. Greece was not unified, and was separated into separate city-states. Each city-state was called a Polis. Each Polis included an urban center and its rural territory, an acropolis, agora, public buildings/establishments and fortified walls. Each Polis was also unique and different because they developed independently. Things in each Polis such as traditions, economies,religions and political systems were different. A different person was the â€Å"ruler† of each Polis. Polis’s also had a different, distinct form of government as well. In Han China, they were not divided! China was unified by Shi Huang Di. Since the empire was unified, they were able to focus on bigger and more important political advancements. The entire empire followed Confucian philosophy, which believed that deep down, humans were capable of doing good deeds. They had a standardized currency for trade, which made it easier for trading to take place. The empire even had a Civil Service system which was  non-existent in Greece. The Civil Service system was put in charge of duties that regulated the society and kept it in balance. They also conducted the Civil Service Exams, which a citizen could take in order to move up in society. This was China’s form of social mobility. However, these civilizations had slight similarities. Both societies stressed the importance of having certain buildings constructed, such as urban centers and universities. These buildings were highly important for these civilizations because they helped the societies carry out the values that were important to them. Urban centers offered a place to meet, while universities were a site where one could go to become more knowledgeable. Technologically, these civilizations were also different. The technologies that they were able to develop or that were important to them was based primarily on their location geographically. In Classical Greece, they focused on building up a strong military base to fend off the surrounding civilizations of Egypt, Persia (Turkey) and Rome. They did this by developing their technologies in things such as ship building, training skilled sailors, and developing their navy for trading and fighting. However in Han China, they were far less concerned about their military/army base because they only had to worry about their nomadic neighbors! They had time to develop technologies such as the cross-bow, the first seismograph (the tool that is used for predicting earthquakes), they built A LOT of roads, specialized in paper making, and they also popularized silk. The popularization of silk was very important because it was the main product that China used for trade! The Chinese even made their paper out of wood bark, which is partly how we make our’s in today’s society! This shows how technologically advanced Han China really was. Despite these immense differences, Classical Greece and Han China had a few similarities. Both societies built certain systems that made life easier for their society. In Classical Greece, they built aqueducts, which were brick water pipes. These pipes were used to transport water throughout the society. In Han China, a system of roads was built. These roads made it easier to transport goods for trade, and had other uses as well. Although the actual technologies may have been different, the one goal that they shared was similar- to make life easier! From the economic/environmental point of view, Greece and Han China had some major differences. Geographically, Greece was a peninsula. They had access to many natural harbors, and Han China did not, along the Silk Road of Han China, people often died of thirst. Greece was also wasn’t far from societies such as Egypt, Persia and Rome. Being so close allowed for cultural diffusion to be present in Greece. Classical Greece’s major trade products were grapes and wine. They often traded these to get the goods that they needed. Greece even had events such as the Olympic Games. The Olympics even brought the divided city-states together for a brief time, despite rivalries they might have had! In Han China, their society was based on agriculture. However, in Greece, the land wasn’t fertile enough to farm. This was a major difference since agriculture was such an important part to China’s society! Another big difference between the two was the Silk Road. It was China’s source of trade, and they often traded their main export, silk on the Silk Road. Despite all of the products the Silk Road gave China, such as horses (China’s most desired product), it also came with a down side. Many diseases were spread on the Silk Road from Europe! This resulted in diseases coming back to Han China, they didn’t just stay on the Silk Road! Despite their major differences economically/environmentally, there were some similarities. One of these similarities was that both civilizations experienced population growth, which led to expansion. The Han period in China was mostly a period of population growth, expansion, and migration! This was the same for Greece. These societies were doing so well in terms of trade, and being able to support the population and become more advanced led to this population growth! It is a great achievement that these civilizations were able to last so long despite all of the hardships they were faced with such as disease and invasions. Yet, they were so advanced for their time that they seemed untouchable! Greece and Han China were mostly different despite their civilizations lasting so long and being so successful. Their ways politically, technologically, and economically/environmentally worked for whatever problems that they were exposed to where they lived, which is what made them prosper. Their views also shaped the legacy that they would leave  on the world! Especially in terms of things that we use today such as road systems and paper making! These advancements are the things that are so important, and still have us learning about Classical Greece and Han China today!

Construction of Knowledge

Throughout this course, we have been exposed to various fields of literature that revolve around a specific theme portraying the argument and point being made. It is possible, however, that two very opposite articles with unrelated topics can and may revolve around a similar theme. Beginning on page 239 of Katherine Ann Ackley’s Perspectives on Contemporary Issues, author Jean Kilbourne describes the impact that advertising has had on our society in her write Advertising’s Influence on Media Content. This article shares a close connection Lois Lowry’s Newbery Medal-winning novel, The Giver.In this dystopian society, a society characterized by human misery (Dictionary. com), officials regulate what the members of the Community know and experience. In addition to Kilbourne, published in The Atlantic in 2008 is writer David Carr’s article Is Google Making Us Stupid? Carr explains that the use of the internet and web browsers such as Google has altered the pro cess in which we perceive information. Although these articles discuss very different issues, from contradicting advertisements to the perception of information, one can take notice to a striking resemblance.The construction of knowledge is affected through both the impact of advertisements in society as well as our recent exposure to the luxury of the internet. The regulation of information and the modern, instantaneous method of attaining knowledge contribute to the deterioration of our construction of knowledge. Author Jean Kilbourne describes in her article Advertising’s Influence on Media Content the misrepresentation of information provided by the media through magazines and television.The media exerts their content in two major ways: via the suppression of information that would harm or offend the sponsor and via the inclusion of editorial content that reflects the product in a positive light (Kilbourne, 239). The line between advertising and editorial content is blurr ed by advertorials, product placement, and video news releases (239). Strikingly, up to 85% of the news we get is bought and paid for by corporations eager to gain positive publicity (239).It is startling to see the control that the media has on what advertisements we as a society are exposed of, and how information is being filtered and regulated for the open public. In 1998, a scandal surfaced concerning the working conditions in foreign factories that supply Nike. Nike’s sponsorship of CBS’ Olympic coverage was rewarded when correspondents delivered the news wearing jackets emblazoned with Nike’s symbol (240). The president of CBS News denied that this sponsorship had anything to do with the investigative 48 Hours segment that had been released just before (240).The editor of The San Francisco Examiner likewise denied that Nike’s co-sponsorship of their annual promotion was in any way related to kill a column by a reporter that was highly critical of N ike (240). It is clear that corporations such as Nike have a way with advertising and have mastered the technique of masking their scandalous ways. Nike’s influence on the media and filtering of information is frightening, and its control over the construction of knowledge has deterred society from questioning its actions.In connection to the concealment of truths, Lois Lowry’s novel The Giver is based upon the construction of knowledge of a civilization. The novel revolves around Jonas, a twelve-year-old boy living in a dystopian society, where people lead dehumanized and often fearful lives (Lowry). He is chosen among his community to serve as the â€Å"Receiver of Memory† where he will maintain the past memories of a time before Sameness filled with pain and suffering, and the training for which will isolate him from his family and friends forever (Lowry).He learns through the previous Receiver, known as the Giver, about true knowledge and is exposed to a wor ld shunned from the others of that society (Lowry). Jonas experiences a life full of love, color, choices, and knowledge, but consequently with hatred, suffering and misery (Lowry). The members of his community are content because they do not know of a better life, and the knowledge of what they are missing out on could create major chaos (Lowry). This is relative to Kilbourne’s argument that major corporations are releasing selected advertisements that expose only what they want the public to see.In the case of the Nike Corporation, the concealment of their horrid working conditions is relevant to Sameness in The Giver. By suppressing information from society, a higher power is in charge of regulating what the community is exposed of, and therefore interfering with their construction of knowledge. One of the main strategies that Kilbourne targets is the contradicting placement of advertisements within women’s magazines. Kilbourne points out the contrasting views withi n a magazine, from the front cover, through the context of the magazine, all the way to the advertisement appearing on the back page.The various headlines included on the cover appear to be along the lines of weight-loss advice, how to make the perfect chocolate cake, hair-styling tips, and numerous ways to avoid aging. Once you make your way to the pages within the magazine, numerous articles feature luscious cakes and pies juxtaposed with articles about diets. This, Kilbourne writes, is an invitation to pathology, fueling the paradoxical obsession with food and weight control that is one of the hallmarks of eating disorders (241). Women’s Day once offered an article on â€Å"Special Report on Deadly Appliances†.Lest we think this is not a serious problem, 80 people died and 370 were injured by these killer appliances (242). On the back cover of the exact magazine, however, there is an advertisement for cigarettes, a product that kills over 400,000 people a year (242) . In 1996, an informal survey was conducted of popular women’s magazines that covered stories varying from countless health issues (242). These issues include skin cancer, Pap smears, and leukemia, as well as outstanding claims such as how breast cancer can be held off with aspirin and the possibility that dry-cleaned clothes can cause cancer (242).The back covers of all of these magazines contained an advertisement for cigarettes, and not a single mention of lung cancer and heart disease caused by smoking (242). The contents within these magazines contradict themselves, and it is obvious how major companies have played a role in regulating the news we receive through the media. The construction of knowledge is interrupted by the filtering of information by these companies paying off the media, restricting exposure to the real problems and issues in our society.Similarly to Kilbourne, David Carr expresses his concern for the construction of knowledge, although through a dissi milar issue. In his article Is Google Making Us Stupid, Carr expresses the influence that the internet has made on how we perceive information. Carr himself has personally been affected by the speedy resource that Google has provided for him (Carr). There has been a change in Carr’s perception of information, where he claims to have lost a sense of focus and that he feels he is literally dragging his way through a piece (Carr).Now, with the assistance of Google, research that once required days in the library can now be done in minutes (Carr). Instead of reading thoroughly the context of an article, Carr finds himself scanning headlines and blog posts, watching videos and podcasts, or just tripping link to link to link (Carr). In his words, Carr describes his own personal spectacle: â€Å"Once I was a scuba diver in the sea of words. Now I zip along the surface like a guy on a Jet Ski† (Carr). Further research has been conducted to explore the phenomenon.A recently pub lished study of online research habits, conducted by scholars form University College London, suggests that we may well be in the midst of a sea of change in the way we read and think (Carr). The scholars examined computer logs documenting the behavior of visitors to two research sites over the course of five years. People using these sites exhibited a â€Å"form of skimming activity†, hopping from one source to another and rarely returning to any source they had already visited (Carr). It is apparent that our society has experienced a huge deterioration in the construction of knowledge.The perception of information has been influenced by the fast-paced and ever-expanding internet. Because we cannot fully absorb the content before us, our construction of knowledge has worsened and eroded. At a first glance, the articles Advertising’s Influence on Media Content and Is Google Making Us Stupid, written by Joan Kilbourne and David Carr, respectively, have nearly nothing in common in terms of their surface context. Kilbourne’s article relates to the impact of advertisements within the media, while Carr’s piece explains the deteriorating perception of knowledge.In addition to these two articles is the novel The Giver written by Lois Lowry, describing a dystopian society and the effects of regulating information. These pieces, while covering a vast span of topics and issues, commonly cover a deeper meaning: the construction of knowledge. All three sources explain the influence of media and other outside sources on how we perceive and stimulate knowledge based on our exposure. The regulation of information and the modern, instantaneous method of attaining knowledge have in fact contributed to the deterioration of our construction of knowledge.Works Cited Carr, David. â€Å"Is Google Making Us Stupid? † The Atlantic Day July/August 2008. Magazine. â€Å"Dystopia. † Dictionary. com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 13 Apr. 2013. . Kilbourne, Jean. â€Å"Advertising’s Influence on Media Content. † Perspectives on Contemporary Issues: Readings Across the Disciplines. 6th ed. Ed. Katherine Anne Ackley. Boston: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning, 2012. 230-233. Print. Lowry, Lois. The Giver. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin, 1993. Print.